Influence of Virtual Reality on
Academic Performance in Secondary Education Through a Meta-Analysis
Influencia de la Realidad Virtual en
el rendimiento académico en Educación Secundaria a través de un meta-análisis
Dr. Juan
José Victoria-Maldonado. Profesor Contratado Doctor. UNED. España
Dr. Arturo
Fuentes-Cabrer. Profesor contratado Doctor interino. UNED.
España
D. José
Fernández-Cerero. Becario Formación Profesorado Universitario.
Universidad de Sevilla. España
Dr. Fernando José
Sadio-Ramos. Profesor Asociado. Instituto Politécnico
de Coimbra. Portugal
Recibido:
2024/01/30 Revisado 2024/02/15 Aceptado: :2024/07/02 Online First: 2024/07/18 Publicado: 2024/09/01
Cómo citar este artículo:
Victoria Maldonado, J. J., Fuentes-Cabrera, A.,
Fernández-Cerero, J., & Sadio-Ramos, F. J. . (2024). Influencia de la
Realidad Virtual en el rendimiento académico en Educación Secundaria a través
de un meta-análisis [Influence of Virtual Reality on Academic Performance in
Secondary Education Through a Meta-Analysis]. Pixel-Bit. Revista De Medios Y
Educación, 71, 107–121. https://doi.org/10.12795/pixelbit.104279
ABSTRACT
The integration of technology
as an educational tool is essential across all educational stages. In this
context, virtual reality has emerged as a powerful tool in recent years.
Despite its prominence, there is limited research demonstrating its effectiveness
in Secondary Education. To address this gap, a meta-analysis was conducted to
explore and define the influence of virtual reality on the academic performance
of secondary school students. The main results reveal a positive impact on
academic performance, especially in short-term interventions, mirroring
findings in other educational stages. However, the lack of clarity in the
scientific literature regarding the overall impact of virtual reality
interventions on students' academic performance in this specific stage is
emphasized. This finding underscores the need for more detailed and conclusive
research to better inform educational practices in the use of virtual reality
in Secondary Education.
RESUMEN
La
integración de la tecnología como herramienta educativa es esencial en todas
las etapas educativas. En este contexto, la realidad virtual ha emergido como
una herramienta poderosa en los últimos años. A pesar de su prominencia, la
investigación que demuestra su eficacia en la Educación Secundaria es escasa.
Para abordar esta brecha, se llevó a cabo un meta-análisis con el objetivo de
explorar y definir la influencia de la realidad virtual en el rendimiento
académico de los estudiantes de secundaria. Los resultados principales revelan
un impacto positivo en el rendimiento académico, especialmente en
intervenciones de corta duración al igual que se muestran las investigaciones
realizadas en otras etapas. Sin embargo, se destaca la falta de claridad en la literatura
científica respecto al impacto general de las intervenciones con realidad
virtual en el rendimiento académico de los estudiantes en esta etapa
específica. Este hallazgo resalta la necesidad de investigaciones más
detalladas y concluyentes para informar mejor las prácticas educativas en el
uso de la realidad virtual en la Educación Secundaria.
PALABRAS CLAVES· KEYWORDS
Virtual Reality; Information and Communication
Technologies; Teaching; Secondary Education; Meta-Analysis
Realidad Virtual;
tecnologías de la información y de la comunicación; enseñanza; Educación
Secundaria; Meta-Análisis
1. Introduction
In contemporary society, the
influence of technology is pervasive, shaping various elements through its
advancements and the new tools it introduces. This ongoing technological
evolution necessitates continuous adaptation across all fundamental societal aspects,
a trend observed over recent decades and characterized by its perpetual nature
(Ordoñez-Olmedo et al., 2021).
Educational institutions,
including schools, are deeply embedded in this process of adaptation.
Consequently, teachers must continually update their skills and knowledge in
using new tools and methodologies to enhance their teaching capabilities
(Campos et al., 2020). Among the various emerging technologies, immersive
technologies hold significant promise within the educational domain. These
technologies facilitate the creation of interactive 3D teaching experiences,
which can significantly enhance the learning process (Ayala et al., 2020).
Immersive technologies, used
for developing interactive 3D environments, are categorized based on the level
of immersion they offer and the degree to which reality interacts with the
virtual environment. The three primary types are augmented reality (AR), mixed
reality (MR), and virtual reality (VR) (Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2021). Each of
these technologies provides distinct levels of immersive experiences and
interaction, offering unique opportunities for educational applications.
1.1. Augmented Reality
This technology combines
virtual objects with the real environment in real time, enabling interaction
between both through technological devices (Martínez et al., 2021). This tool
stands out due to its motivational impact, introducing a new and innovative
element into the classroom (Cabero et al., 2019). Augmented reality views
learning as something that occurs through multiple pathways, emphasizing
experimentation and research as fundamental elements. It highlights several key
aspects, such as game-based learning, research-based learning, ubiquity,
constructivism, contextualization of content, and the use of mobile devices as
working tools (Cabero et al., 2019).
Despite its accessibility,
augmented reality technology faces limitations primarily related to resource
availability (Cadavieco et al., 2012). Unlike other technologies discussed in
this study, augmented reality requires a mobile device with specific characteristics,
typically high-end phones (Reyes, 2020).
1.2. Mixed Reality
With respect to mixed reality,
we are not going to emphasize or explain in detail how it works. It is
certainly a technology that is perceived as something innovative and with great
possibilities. However, looking at the current scientific literature and
establishing its possibilities and limitations, it can be seen how the economic
factor is a differential factor that cancels out any possibility of action
within an educational center (Rivera et al., 2021; Marín et al., 2023 and De
Jesús and Ayala, 2021).
1.3. Virtual Reality
Virtual reality, as its name
suggests, focuses on generating a completely virtual environment into which the
user is immersed through an electronic device. One of the advantages of this
tool is its adaptability. The use of virtual reality, regardless of the
application, has a reduced adaptation process compared to other technologies, as
it places the user in a specific environment that is quickly understood (Hwang
et al., 2022).
In the educational field,
virtual reality is having a significant impact due to its ease of use and the
immersive experience it provides, making it a motivating and flexible tool for
various educational purposes. For instance, a study by Huang et al. (2022) in
higher education compared augmented reality and virtual reality, finding that
while the level of learning was similar, motivation was higher with virtual
reality.
Another study highlighting the
impact of virtual reality in higher education is presented by Sheng et al.
(2022), which explores the use of virtual reality in developing orthodontic
studies.
Although these studies focus
on virtual reality in higher education, it is necessary to analyze its
potential use in secondary education, especially since most devices enabling
this tool have a minimum recommended age of 13 years. Initially, it is
important to note that most studies in this area focus on behavioral analysis,
such as the work by Van Ginkel et al. (2020), which shows positive results from
this perspective. However, there are no reviews or data that significantly
demonstrate an impact on academic performance.
Given this conceptual
delimitation, the present study aims to explore how virtual reality can be used
to improve the academic performance of secondary school students. To this end,
the following questions are presented:
R.Q.3 What evidence does the scientific literature provide on the
efficacy of Virtual Reality and its impact on the academic performance of
secondary school students?
2. Methodology
To create a search equation
that meets the requirements of this meta-analysis, a keyword search was
conducted to examine the impact of virtual reality on academic performance in a
general sense, including specific subjects. Initially, two terms were identified,
and their synonyms were searched in the ERIC Thesaurus, the European Thesaurus,
and the European Education Thesaurus. This process led to the establishment of
the following search equation: ("virtual reality" OR "VR"
OR "virtual environment" OR "immersion" OR "immersive
360") AND ("academic achievement" OR "Academic
Records" OR "Educational Indicators" OR "Grades" OR
"Grading" OR "Test" OR "School Effectiveness" OR "Student
evaluation" OR "student improvement"). Using this initial search
equation, a preliminary search was conducted in both WOS and Scopus. The search
was filtered to include articles from 2019, available in Spanish and English,
categorized under Education and Educational Research (Social Sciences in
Scopus), and open access. This initial search was necessary due to the novelty
of the subject matter, as the keywords used were not yet defined in the
aforementioned thesauri. Therefore, it was important to collect the most
relevant keywords currently in use.
From this first search, a
total of 554 references were obtained, and an analysis of their keywords was
performed, resulting in the following cluster diagram (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Cluster’s Flowchart
From this search, we
identified various aspects that could be refined to make the search equation
more accurate. Terms such as e-learning, immersive virtual reality, teaching,
learning, performance assessment, and computer simulation should be included,
while terms like human experiment, eye tracking, behavioral research, and
memory should be excluded, as they extend beyond the scope of this article.
Additionally, since the
meta-analysis focuses on secondary education, relevant thesaurus terms related
to this educational stage are incorporated. The refined search equation is
defined as follows: ("virtual reality" OR "VR" OR
"virtual environment" OR "immersion" OR "immersive
360" OR "e-learning" OR "immersive virtual reality" OR
"computer simulation" ) AND ( "academic achievement" OR
"Academic Records" OR "Educational Indicators" OR
"Grades" OR "Grading" OR "Test" OR "School
Effectiveness" OR "Student evaluation" OR "student
improvement" OR "teaching" OR "learning" OR
"performance assessment" ) AND ("Secondary School Students"
OR "Adolescents" OR "Secondary Education" OR "Secondary
Schools" OR "High Schools") AND NOT ( "qualitative
study" OR "case study" OR "action research" OR
"single subject design" OR "descriptive study" OR
"correlational study" OR "case study" OR "human
experiment" OR "eye tracking" OR "Behavioral research"
OR " memory" OR ).
Using this search equation,
automatic filters were applied in the aforementioned databases, specifying the
following criteria: articles from 2019 to 2023 (covering the last five years),
articles only, because journal publications generally exhibit greater rigor and
impact compared to books or conference papers. Additionally, the articles
belong to the Social Sciences branch in Scopus and the Education Educational
Research category in WOS, in line with the subject of this study. Only open
access journal articles were selected to ensure the study's replicability. The
languages were limited to Spanish and English, as these are of significant
scientific interest and are familiar to the authors of this article.
Regarding the inclusion and
exclusion criteria for the articles, four criteria were proposed (justified in
Table 1): practical experience, conducted in secondary education, presence of a
control group and an experimental group, and a clear relationship between the
experience and academic performance.
Table 1
Inclusion and exclusion criterio
|
Criteria |
Justification |
|
Being practical experiences |
The objective of the research is to see how experiences in secondary
education influence academic performance, so correlational, descriptive,
qualitative studies, etc... cannot be included in this review. |
|
Done in Secondary Education |
The study is focused on this stage, so studies with an older university
population are out of the context of this research. |
|
Research With Control and Experimental Groups |
To ensure that virtual reality is a suitable tool, it is necessary to
see how virtual reality influences and compare it with other tools to see if
it is more or less suitable. |
|
Focus on the relationship of virtual reality to academic performance |
Other elements such as classroom management are being worked on using
virtual reality. However, from the present study, academic performance is
understood as the most differential factor when introducing a tool in the
classroom or not. |
Following the points
established in the PRISMA guidelines as indicated by Page et al. (2021), the
various criteria for conducting systematic reviews and meta-analyses are
outlined throughout the document.
Accordingly, for the review
and subsequent meta-analysis, the flow diagram for the selection of articles is
defined as shown in Figure 2:
Figure 2
PRISMA Flowchart
3. Results
R.Q.1. What are the salient
features of the studies, including geographical and temporal distribution, most
cited journals and authors, keyword analysis, sample selection procedures,
cluster configurations, and sample characteristics?
To begin with, an analysis of
the included publications is conducted to observe how the topic is developing
in the scientific literature. The study by Bibic et al. (2019) stands out as
the most cited article, published in the Journal of Chemical Education.
However, despite being the most cited, it does not have an overwhelming number
of citations. This could indicate either a lack of interest in the subject or
its limited impact, which warrants further investigation.
Additionally, although there
is no clear trend in the most commonly used keywords, "Virtual
Reality" appears prominently in studies by Setyowati et al. (2023),
Christopoulos et al. (2023), and Jitmahantakul et al. (2019). The keyword
"learning" is highlighted in studies by Setyowati et al. (2023),
Huang et al. (2022), Jitmahantakul et al. (2019), and Hamamous et al. (2023).
This brief description
underscores the relevance of the topic within the educational field. It shows
that the key terms, as well as the most cited publications and journals, are
often associated with psychological aspects such as learning, motivation, and
behavior.
Regarding the selection of the
sample, participants, and their characteristics, it is important to note that
Secondary Education has been established as the developmental stage for this
study. Consequently, all studies included have a sample of participants aged
between 10 and 18 years. The samples were primarily selected based on access to
educational centers, ensuring that the groups were similar in terms of academic
performance, with no statistically significant differences.
For the intervention, the
groups were randomly assigned: one group received the virtual reality
intervention, while the other group received a different type of intervention.
2. What are the
characteristics of the intervention, taking into account its duration, setting,
practices, strategies, techniques, resources, and activities?
Regarding the use of Virtual
Reality (VR) in Secondary Education, it is important to note that there is no
clear protocol for such interventions. However, two main temporal categories of
interventions can be identified.
The first category includes
short-term interventions, lasting between 45 minutes and two hours. Studies
such as those by Bibic et al. (2019), Jitmahantaku and Chenrai (2019),
Tsivitanidou et al. (2021), Küger et al. (2022), Setyowati et al. (2023), Chu et
al. (2023), and Hamamous and Benjelloun (2023) fall into this category. These
interventions are predominant because they quickly demonstrate outcomes, with
research indicating that even a brief intervention can lead to an improvement
in students' grades and academic performance.
The second category consists
of long-term interventions, which are particularly relevant as they show the
prolonged effects of VR on academic performance. Examples include the studies
by Mjenda et al. (2023) and Christopoulos et al. (2023), which involve
interventions lasting a month and a half and incorporate various elements to
assess their influence.
While there are no standard
activities or tools universally used to develop VR interventions in higher
education, the following is a list of tools and proposals derived from
different research studies:
·
The game Bug of a Pain video
game in Virtual Reality for Android and virtual reality devices.
·
Based on three key aspects: To
become familiar with the geological environment in a virtual environment; to be
able to observe geographical features and recognize them and to be able to
analyze the different geographical points and to be able to see previous events
that have caused the space in which it is located.
·
Intervention divided into
phases: 1 gathering information from traditional or textual media, 2 the use of
virtual reality video games (focused on space) and 3 videos taken from the
National Geographic Project Einstein's train paradox.
·
360 videos and images on the
environmental impact on the Baltic Sea available for Android mobile devices.
·
The method developed in: Borg
and Gall (2003) and Dick and Carey's (2013) model
·
Construction and Sketching 3D
Figures
Finally, regarding the context
in which the research is conducted, it is noteworthy that although all studies
are carried out in Secondary Education, the contexts are diverse, spanning
various regions across the world. Despite financial constraints, some studies
have identified more economical alternatives for implementing virtual reality.
For instance, while Bibic et
al. (2019) and Tsivitanidou et al. (2021) utilize more sophisticated VR tools
with greater immersion capabilities, Jitmahantaku and Chenrai (2019)
demonstrate the application of VR using simpler, more affordable devices like Google
Cardboard. These devices are presented as cost-effective tools suitable for
educational settings.
3. What evidence does the
scientific literature provide on the efficacy of Virtual Reality and its impact
on the academic performance of secondary school students?
A total of k=8 studies were
included in the analysis. The observed standardized mean differences ranged
from 0.0691 to 2.6059, and most of the estimates were positive (100%). The
estimated mean standardized mean difference based on the random-effects model
was = 0.9519 (95% CI 0.2299 to 1.6740). Thus, the mean result differed
significantly from zero (z = 2.5839, p = 0.0098) (Table 3).
Table 3
Random-Effects Model (k = 8)
|
Random-Effects Model (k = 8) |
|||||||||||||
|
|
Estimate |
se |
Z |
p |
CI Lower Bound |
CI Upper Bound |
|||||||
|
Intercept |
0.952 |
0.368 |
2.58 |
0.010 |
0.230 |
1.674 |
|||||||
|
Nota. Tau² Estimator: Restricted Maximum-Likelihood |
|||||||||||||
According to the Q test, the
true results appear to be heterogeneous (Q(7) = 95.8119, p < 0.0001, tau² =
1.0035, I² = 94.6088%) (Table 4). A 95% prediction interval for the actual
results is given by -1.1400 to 3.0439. Therefore, although the mean result is
estimated to be positive, in some studies the actual result may be negative.
Table 4
Heterogeneity Statistics
|
Tau |
Tau² |
I² |
H² |
R² |
df |
Q |
p |
||||||||
|
1.002 |
1.0035 (SE= 0.5801 ) |
94.61% |
18.549 |
. |
7.000 |
95.812 |
< .001 |
||||||||
An examination of the
residuals studied revealed that none of the studies had a value greater than ±
2.7344, so there was no indication of outliers in the context of this model.
According to Cook's distances, none of the studies could be considered overly
influential (Figure 3).
Figure 3
Forest plot
The regression test indicated asymmetry in the funnel
plot (p = 0.0289), but not the rank correlation test (p = 0.0610) (Table 6)
(Figure 4).
Table 5
Publication Bias Assessment
Figure 4
Funnel plot
These results, however, cannot
be taken into account as a reference when mentioning the results of virtual
reality. On the part of the researchers, all possible aspects have been taken
to eliminate the selection bias of the articles. Regarding the publication
bias, it is important to mention that all the studies have a positive result
that can be seen at a statistical level through the Egger's Regression test.
It can also be seen how there
is an improvement in academic performance through the use of this tool,
especially if we look at data such as IQ Lower Bound and IQ Upper Bound.
However, although an improvement of 0.95 points above the mean is established, this
result cannot be taken into account for future research because, as shown in
Figure 4, the deviation of this result is very large.
4. Conclusions
The main conclusion of this
study is that there is no clear evidence regarding the effect of VR on academic
performance.
Throughout the study, it
became apparent that a comprehensive review of the subject is needed at the
scientific level. There are no specific keywords that facilitate the search for
documents related to VR, making initial searches complex and resulting in low
citation and referencing indices.
Regarding the interventions
themselves, Tsivitanidou et al. (2021) and Bibic et al. (2019) stand out for
their detailed explanation of the specific activities performed during the
intervention. However, in many cases, it is challenging to identify which devices
and specific tools were used in the interventions.
A notable methodological
weakness across all studies is the selection of the sample. In the educational
field, conducting experimental studies is challenging, as the structure of the
educational system often necessitates a quasi-experimental design.
However, due to the
limitations of access to the sample, in most cases the sample is low and
insignificant, although the studies seek to ensure that the control and
experimental groups are equivalent.
Finally, mention should be
made of the data provided by the different studies. It can be seen that there
is an improvement in the academic performance of secondary school students
after the intervention with VR. However, estimating the value of this variation
in academic performance is a complex task through a review of the literature,
since the results given in the different interventions are certainly very
variable. This is due to different aspects such as the time of intervention
that is carried out, in which it is necessary to highlight Mjenda et al. (2023)
and Christopoulos et al. (2023), the subject that is worked and how school
performance is measured or how it is worked with the control group.
Compiling all the results and
conclusions mentioned above, it is evident that scientific contributions
relating virtual reality and academic performance are scarce. Furthermore,
there is no specific methodology for developing experiences with virtual reality,
which makes it difficult to extract conclusive data on the subject.
4.1. Limitations
The present study by
methodology is understood as a purely theoretical study which, in spite of
having empirical data, is not specific to it. This limitation directly affects
the results presented, since they do not depend on the researchers who have carried
out the research, but depend directly on the scientific literature.
Another limitation present in the review,
related to the previous one and to what is stated in the conclusions, is the
number of articles published on the subject, since the total number of articles
selected has been reduced to 8 due to the lack of publications on this subject.
As a final limitation, it is
important to point out that there is no validated intervention method for VR in
Secondary Education, so that the works reviewed, despite rigorously covering
most of the interventions, in many cases are difficult to replicate in the same
context or in different contexts.
4.2. Future Research
Future research that may arise
from this study is limited by the limitations that it has presented.
Establishing, as future lines of research, the design of an intervention with
virtual reality focused on secondary education. Another possible line of research
for the future would be one similar to the present study in which the impact on
academic performance is evaluated specifically in an area, subject or subject
so as to show which subjects benefit most from this tool.
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