Virtual reality and CPR: an analysis of the social-cultural and technological gap between educational centers

Realidad virtual y RCP: un análisis de la brecha sociocultural y tecnológica entre centros educativos

Juan José González Ortiz. Universidad Católica de Murcia. España.

José Antonio Ortí Martínez. Universidad Católica de Murcia. España.

Manuel Pardo Ríos. Universidad Católica de Murcia. España.

Received: 2025/07/17 Revised: 2025/09/10 Accepted: 2026/01/09 Published: 2026/09/01

How to cite:

González Ortiz, J.J., Ortí Martínez, J.A., & Pardo Ríos, M. (2026). Virtual reality and CPR: an analysis of the social-cultural and technological gap between educational centers [Realidad virtual y RCP: un análisis de la brecha sociocultural y tecnológica entre centros educativos]. Pixel-Bit, Revista de Medios y Educación, 77, Art. 9. https://doi.org/10.12795/pixelbit.117328

ABSTRACT

The use of virtual reality (VR) in educational settings has proven effective in developing practical skills; however, its impact on children and its relationship with the digital divide remain underexplored. This research, funded by Fundación Mapfre, analyzes the learning curves of primary school students acquiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) skills through VR, comparing two schools with different sociocultural contexts. A quasi-experimental study was conducted with students from 3rd, 4th, and 5th grades. Each group completed two sessions using Meta Quest 3 headsets and an immersive 360° video on basic life support. Learning was assessed through six interactive questions and statistical analysis (independent samples t-tests). The urban school showed significant improvements in 3rd and 4th grades (p < .001), while the disadvantaged school showed no relevant progress. In 5th grade, both schools exhibited moderate improvements with no statistical significance. The findings reveal a digital divide that affects not only access to technology but also its educational effectiveness. It is concluded that the implementation of VR in classrooms must be accompanied by inclusive digital strategies and targeted teacher training.

RESUMEN

El uso de la realidad virtual (RV) en contextos educativos ha demostrado ser eficaz en el desarrollo de habilidades prácticas; sin embargo, su impacto en la infancia y su relación con la brecha digital siguen siendo poco explorados. Esta investigación, financiada por Fundación Mapfre, analiza las curvas de aprendizaje de estudiantes de Educación Primaria al aprender reanimación cardiopulmonar mediante RV, comparando dos centros con contextos socioculturales distintos. Se llevó a cabo un estudio cuasiexperimental con alumnado de 3º, 4º y 5º de Primaria. Cada grupo realizó dos sesiones con gafas Meta Quest 3 y un vídeo inmersivo de 360° sobre soporte vital básico. Se evaluó el aprendizaje mediante seis preguntas interactivas y análisis estadístico (pruebas t para muestras independientes). El centro urbano mostró mejoras significativas en 3º y 4º (p < .001), mientras que el centro en entorno desfavorecido no presentó avances relevantes. En 5º, ambos centros registraron mejoras moderadas sin significación estadística. Los datos reflejan una brecha digital que incide en la eficacia educativa de la RV. Se concluye que su implementación debe ir acompañada de medidas de inclusión digital y formación docente específica.

KEYWORDS · PALABRAS CLAVES

Digital divide; Social inequality; Educational innovation; digital transformation; Teaching methods · Brecha digital; Desigualdad social; Innovación pedagógica; Transformación digital; Método de enseñanza.

1. Introduction

In Spain, in 2023 twenty-six percent of the population (26.5%) was at risk of poverty or social exclusion (EUROSTAT, 2024). People who have experienced homelessness, due to their situation of severe vulnerability, represent one of the most extreme manifestations of poverty and social exclusion (Muñoz et al., 2004; Rivas-Rivero et al., 2021). These individuals are not only in a situation of extreme poverty but also suffer from a strong disconnection from family and social networks, significant health deficits, and major difficulties in social and labor reintegration (Rodríguez-Moreno et al., 2021).

The Virtual Reality (henceforth VR) experience analyzed in this article constitutes one of the innovative strategies implemented to enhance health literacy from an early age, bridge the digital divide, and foster meaningful, gamified learning adapted to contemporary technological challenges.

In the educational sphere, VR has proven to be an effective tool for recreating complex and challenging scenarios, such as those involving the acquisition of skills and preparedness for responding to emergency situations requiring Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (henceforth CPR). This technology allows students, including those in Primary Education (aged 9, 10, and 11), to practice within a safe, controlled, and hyper-realistic environment (Álvarez et al., 2025; Bocos-Corredor et al., 2020; Ke et al., 2020).

From a pedagogical and methodological perspective, VR offers highly interactive learning experiences, enabling students to manipulate and explore concepts in a more realistic and significant manner. This facilitates exploration and experimentation by immersing students in simulated environments where they can interact directly with the subject matter (Álvarez et al., 2024; Hamilton et al., 2021; Gómez et al., 2018; Sánchez et al., 2023). Furthermore, as noted by Magallanes et al. (2021) and Maldonado et al. (2020), this technology assists in training responses to potential everyday emergencies, as these scenarios have been previously rehearsed and are thus "familiar" to the student.

Various studies (Cerezo et al., 2019; Shin et al., 2023) have analyzed the efficacy of VR in teaching CPR within university contexts. For instance, in the research conducted by Fernández et al. (2021) with pre-service primary school teachers, traditional training was compared with VR simulations. The results indicated superior theoretical and practical outcomes in the latter group, particularly regarding the quality of chest compressions. Similarly, Pérez-Rubio et al. (2023) found that the utilization of a VR-based game improved both the technique and the efficiency of the chain of survival among future educators.

1.1. Social and Technological divide

The advancement of digital technologies has profoundly transformed society, facilitating access to information, communication, and the execution of daily tasks (García et al., 2020; Urquijo, 2017). Nevertheless, this development has not been homogeneous, giving rise to what is known as the digital divide—a phenomenon representing the inequality in the access, usage, and appropriation of digital technologies (Cabero, 2004, p. 24). This disparity particularly affects the most vulnerable groups, thereby impeding their full integration into the digital society (United Nations, 2020).

In the case of Spain, disparities regarding access to digital technologies remain significant. According to the National Statistics Institute (INE, 2022), approximately 2 million individuals lack internet access, while 15 million possess low or non-existent levels of digital literacy. These figures reflect a concerning disparity that primarily impacts the elderly, residents of rural areas, individuals with low educational attainment, women, and those with limited economic resources (Torres, 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these inequalities as a substantial portion of daily activities transitioned into the digital sphere (García et al., 2020).

The digital divide has been classified into three distinct levels by various authors. Firstly, the first-level digital divide pertains to access—specifically, the presence or absence of adequate infrastructure and devices. In this regard, although 96.1% of Spanish households possess an internet connection, approximately 17% remain without broadband access, particularly in rural areas (Gómez et al., 2018; Van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2019). Secondly, the second-level digital divide refers to usage and is associated with the lack of proficiency in managing Information and Communication Technologies (henceforth ICT); more pronounced difficulties are observed among the elderly and individuals with lower educational attainment (Castaño, 2008; Helsper & Gerber, 2012). Finally, the third-level digital divide, or the "appropriation gap," concerns the capacity to employ technology in a critical and meaningful manner. Consequently, digital literacy becomes essential in mitigating disinformation processes and social exclusion (Cabero & Ruiz-Palmero, 2017; UNESCO, 2018).

Recent evidence shows that health literacy is unevenly distributed according to educational level, income, and employment status, with socioeconomically disadvantaged groups exhibiting lower competencies to understand and use health-related information (Tamayo-Fonseca et al., 2023; Pelikan, 2024). These disparities act as a mechanism that amplifies health inequalities and are also reflected in CPR training, as individuals with lower educational levels and reduced incomes are less likely to have received recent instruction. This results in lower CPR performance rates and avoidable survival gaps following a cardiac arrest (Blewer et al., 2017; Tamayo-Fonseca et al., 2023).

In this context, virtual reality (VR) is presented as a potentially democratizing tool, as it enables brief, standardized, and scalable CPR training. However, its implementation is constrained by the digital divide, since unequal access to devices, connectivity, and digital competencies may reinforce the advantages of schools with greater technological resources (Sun et al., 2024; Selak et al., 2025). Nevertheless, the literature has scarcely examined in an integrated manner the use of VR in CPR teaching, students’ health literacy, and the differences between schools with diverse resources and sociocultural contexts. This gap is particularly relevant, and your study contributes to addressing it by adopting a socio-educational approach focused on equity rather than solely on the technical effectiveness of the intervention (Blewer et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2024; Sun et al., 2024; Tamayo-Fonseca et al., 2023).

To tackle these inequalities, 124 national, regional, and local programs were implemented in Spain during 2022 and 2023. These initiatives aim to reduce the digital divide through training, infrastructure provision, and the enhancement of digital accessibility. The results of this analysis (Plaza-Osorio, 2024) reveal an unequal distribution of initiatives, with insufficient coverage for the most vulnerable groups. Several recent initiatives stand out in Spain for their contribution to reducing the digital divide, including the National Digital Skills Plan, which promotes inclusion and training actions in both basic and advanced digital skills targeting citizens and vulnerable territories (Government of Spain, 2023). Also noteworthy is the Digitalisation and Digital Competence Plan for the Education System (#DigEdu), focused on providing technological resources for vulnerable students and on teacher training (INTEF, 2024). Additionally, the Digital Skills Program for Childhood (CODI) targets children in vulnerable situations (Ministry of Youth and Childhood, 2023).

1.2. The Digital Divide in Primary Education

In the context of Primary Education, the digital divide represents one of the most significant structural challenges for ensuring equitable and high-quality education. This phenomenon refers not only to the availability of technological resources but also—and especially—to the capacity to make pedagogical use of these resources in relation to students’ sociocultural environments (González et al., 2023; Pérez-Escoda et al., 2020).

In Primary Education, the third digital divide (appropriation), discussed earlier, is particularly critical, as students rely heavily on both teacher and family support to develop functional and critical digital competencies (Yánez-Pérez et al., 2024). Differences among schools located in contexts with varying socioeconomic levels create asymmetries in the effective implementation of technological methodologies, such as virtual reality. While some schools have access to equipment, stable connectivity, and specific teacher training, others face structural limitations that constrain the quality of digital learning experiences (Cabero & Ruiz-Palmero, 2017).

As the OECD (2019) warns, the integration of technology into the classroom does not in itself guarantee innovation or equity. When technology is introduced without methodological planning, teacher training, and family support, not only is its potential lost, but it may also exacerbate pre-existing forms of exclusion. This risk is particularly relevant in Primary Education, where students require pedagogical scaffolding adapted to their developmental stage in order to benefit from digital initiatives such as those presented in this study.

The use of emerging technologies such as VR in school settings can deepen the existing digital divide when implemented without equity and protection criteria (Pérez et al., 2020). While some schools possess the resources and training necessary to ensure safe and pedagogically sound use of VR, others encounter technological, regulatory, and training barriers that hinder its effective integration.

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR, 2016) and its adaptation in Spain through the LOPDGDD (Organic Law 3/2018) strengthen the protection of students’ personal data, particularly that of minors, by establishing obligations regarding how schools collect, store, and use digital information, but without having the direct aim of promoting digital competencies. In the strictly educational sphere, Organic Law 3/2020 amending the LOE (LOMLOE) incorporates digital inclusion and the critical and safe use of technology as principles of the education system, thereby linking data protection with students’ training in digital citizenship.

This regulatory framework is complemented by strategic policies such as España Digital 2026 and the National Digital Skills Plan, which aim to improve digital literacy and advance the digitalisation of the education system through investment in infrastructure and training programmes. However, the implementation of these frameworks is uneven across regions and schools, so that a lack of resources and targeted support in more vulnerable contexts may lead to digitalisation progressing without equity criteria, reinforcing the digital divide instead of reducing it.

In light of all the above, this experimental study focuses on the following objectives:

Analyse the learning curve of children through the use of VR for the teaching of Basic Life Support (BLS).

Examine the impact of the digital divide among students from different socio-economic and sociocultural contexts. To this end, the results of VR implementation are compared in two schools with significant economic and cultural differences.

2. Methodology

2.1. Study Design

This experimental study analyses learning and knowledge retention in basic life support (BLS) among 266 students enrolled in 3rd, 4th, and 5th grades of Primary Education, using an immersive training tool based on virtual reality. The following technological resources were employed:

· VR equipment: Meta Quest 3 headsets, with 6K resolution for 360º videos.

· The Wonda platform, which enables immersion in an interactive 360º video environment.

· Content: Simulated basic life support scenarios from the educational programme “Aprendiendo Juntos a Salvar Vidas” by Fundación MAPFRE. This scenario is an individual immersive experience with real-time decision-making, designed to stimulate learning through critical choices with real-time debriefing; that is, when a student makes an error, an avatar appears and indicates what the optimal alternative would have been. When the student responds correctly, positive feedback is provided and 1 point is awarded, up to a maximum score of 6 points when all responses are correct.

The interventions were carried out at two points in time (03/02/2025 and 31/03/2025) in two schools with different sociocultural and economic characteristics. The participating students had not received prior training in VR. Two learning sessions were conducted, with an eight-week interval between the first and second training sessions (see full details in the Sample and Participants section). The participating schools were:

· School X1: A state-subsidised private school located in the centre of the city of Murcia.

· School X2: A public school located in a municipality in the Region of Murcia, belonging to the Vega Media del Segura county.

2.2. Sample and Participants

A sample of 266 school-aged children (9 to 11 years old) was included.

Table 1

Research sample

School X1		School X2
3rd grade of Primary	50	3rd grade of Primary	48
4th grade of Primary	56	4th grade of Primary	46
5th grade of Primary	42	5th grade of Primary	30
Total	148		118

X1 School.

A state-subsidised private school located in the centre of Murcia, with a strong focus on innovation, active methodologies, and technology from early ages. Its student body, mostly middle- to upper-class, benefits from high levels of family support and a highly digitalised home environment, and the school has advanced technological infrastructure and teachers trained in ICT.

X2 School.

A public school with a strong commitment to inclusion that serves a diverse student body, many of whom have limited economic and digital resources and receive less family support in the educational use of technology. Despite this context, the school has good digital infrastructure and teachers trained in ICT.

2.2. Data Analysis

To evaluate changes in students’ learning after using the VR-based teaching resource for BLS instruction, two sessions were conducted on different dates (02/03/2025 and 03/31/2025) in both schools, with students from 3rd, 4th, and 5th grades of Primary Education. In each session, students answered six questions while using the VR headsets, and their scores were recorded (range: 0–6).

Data organisation and preparation: Data were collected in separate spreadsheets by grade and date. Column names were standardised to ensure consistency across analyses. Subsequently, all data were merged into a single analytical dataset structured by grade (3rd, 4th, and 5th) and by assessment time point (before and after the learning retention period).

· Descriptive analysis: Basic descriptive statistics were calculated for each group, including number of participants, mean, and standard deviation of scores.

· Inferential analysis: Since the number of participants varied between the two sessions for each grade (that is, the samples were not paired), a Student’s t test for independent samples was applied in order to identify significant differences between the scores obtained in the first and second sessions. An alpha level of .05 was adopted for all analyses.

This analysis made it possible to detect the presence of significant improvements in mean scores, which was interpreted as evidence of the learning effect mediated by VR. In addition to hypothesis testing using the independent-samples t test, effect size was calculated using Hedges’ g, taking as a reference the pooled standard deviation of both measurement points in each group. Following the conventional cut-off points (g ≈ 0.20 small, g ≈ 0.50 medium, g ≥ 0.80 large), this index makes it possible to assess the practical relevance of the differences observed between the first and second sessions, particularly in a context where variations in the number of participants reduce the statistical power of significance tests.

3. Results

The database was compiled and processed using the SPSS statistical analysis and data management system. For the analysis of ICT use by age, the variable was recoded into four quartile-based groups: under 42 years, 42–52 years, 53–59 years, and over 59 years. To perform comparisons, the chi-square statistic (χ²) was applied for nominal variables, and Cramer’s V was used to determine effect size.

A. Inter-institutional comparison:

X1 School:

At School X1, the results show a clear positive progression in the mean scores obtained by students between the first and second BLS training sessions using VR:

· 3rd grade of Primary: The mean score increased from 2.46 (SD = 0.85) to 3.45 (SD = 0.88) out of 6, with a statistically significant difference (p < .001). The improvement between sessions is accompanied by a large effect size (Hedges’ g = 1.14), indicating a substantial change in student performance beyond statistical significance.

· 4th grade of Primary: The mean score improved from 2.75 (SD = 0.92) to 3.76 (SD = 0.95), also with statistical significance (p < .01). In 4th grade, the effect size is likewise large (g = 1.07), reinforcing the interpretation of a notable improvement in the VR-mediated learning curve.

· 5th grade of Primary: The improvement was more modest, from 2.56 (SD = 0.87) to 2.97 (SD = 0.91), and did not reach statistical significance (p = .25). In 5th grade, the effect size is medium (g = 0.46), suggesting a moderate gain, consistent with the lack of statistical significance but indicative of some practical improvement in performance.

These results suggest a positive learning curve in 3rd and 4th grades, possibly influenced by factors such as familiarity with technology or contextual conditions favourable to immersive learning. It is important to emphasise that differences between schools may be affected by uncontrolled contextual factors, which are discussed as limitations.

Table 2

Summary of data for School X1

Grade	Before (M ± SD)	After (M ± SD)	Change (%)
3º	2.46 ± .85	3.45 ± .88	+40.2%
4º	2.75 ± .92	3.76 ± .95	+36.7%
5º	2.56 ± .87	2.97 ± .91	+16.0%

The results indicate a generalised improvement across the three grades after the intervention, especially in 3rd and 4th grades of Primary Education, where mean scores increase from relatively low values to levels close to or above 3.5, suggesting a substantial advance in performance. In 5th grade, the improvement is more modest but still represents positive progress.

Standard deviations remain stable across all grades, which points to a relatively homogeneous improvement without notable increases in score dispersion. This pattern suggests that most students benefited in a comparable way from the immersive learning experience, with a particularly marked impact in the lower grades, where there may be greater room for improvement or higher receptivity to new methodologies. In the higher grade, the gain, although present, may require additional supports or methodological adjustments to maximise its effect.

X2 School:

At School X2, the results reflect a more limited or even stagnant learning curve between the first and second sessions: no statistically significant differences were observed in any of the three grades (p > .05). Mean scores in the second session are slightly higher in 5th grade and slightly lower in 3rd and 4th grades, but these differences do not reach statistical significance.

· In 3rd grade of Primary Education, the difference is small but negative. This slight decrease suggests that the intervention did not generate a positive impact and, although the change is not drastic, it does indicate stagnation or a certain misalignment. Standard deviations remain stable (SD = 0.81 before and 0.79 after), indicating that group performance did not become more dispersed but did not improve consistently either.

· In 4th grade of Primary Education, the decrease is more pronounced than in 3rd grade. This group started from a relatively high mean score (3.07), higher than the other grades, but after the intervention a drop of more than 3% is observed. The SD increases slightly from 0.84 to 0.86, which may indicate greater individual variability in response to the programme, perhaps due to differences in motivation, content comprehension, or interaction with the technology. In 3rd and 4th grades, effect sizes are practically null or small in a negative direction (g = -0.04 and g = -0.13, respectively), supporting the interpretation of stagnation or slight regression in mean scores.

· In 5th grade of Primary Education, a medium effect size is observed (g = 0.44), consistent with a moderate improvement in the second session despite the lack of statistical significance. In this case, 5th grade is the only group with a notable gain: the 14.8% increase indicates that the intervention was beneficial for this cohort. The SD rises from 0.89 to 0.91, showing that the improvement occurred without a marked increase in dispersion, that is, it was relatively homogeneous within the group. It is plausible that these students had greater autonomy, better understanding of the technology, or experienced an implementation more closely aligned with their interests and abilities.

Table 3

Summary of data for School X2

Grade	Before (M ± SD)	After (M ± SD)	Change (%)
3º	2.53 ± .81	2.50 ± .79	-1.2%
4º	3.07 ± .84	2.96 ± .86	-3.6%
5º	2.70 ± .89	3.10 ± .91	+14.8%

Taken together, the results of this second evaluation show a more heterogeneous pattern of change. While 5th grade experiences a notable improvement, 3rd and 4th grades display a slight decrease in mean scores (−1.2% and −3.6%, respectively), consistent with a limited or null impact of the intervention at these levels. The standard deviations support this interpretation: there are no major changes in dispersion, suggesting that the differences are not driven by extreme subgroups but rather by a lack of generalised impact in those grades.

Figure 1

Comparison of mean scores: School X1

Note: Own elaboration

Figure 2

Comparison of mean scores. School X2

.

Note: Own elaboration

B. Comparison between schools

3rd grade of Primary Education:

· School X1 shows a significant improvement of +0.99 points (from 2.46 ± 0.85 to 3.45 ± 0.88), whereas School X2 remains practically stable, with a slight decrease of −0.03 points (from 2.53 ± 0.81 to 2.50 ± 0.79).

· This difference reflects a clear digital divide, which may be related to unequal access to technology, differences in teacher support, or prior familiarity with digital tools; in addition, the low dispersion in X1 indicates that improvement was widespread among students

4th grade of Primary Education:

· X1 shows an improvement of +1.01 points (from 2.75 ± 0.92 to 3.76 ± 0.95), whereas X2 shows a decrease of −0.11 points (from 3.07 ± 0.84 to 2.96 ± 0.86)

· Despite starting from similar levels, the results diverge considerably after the intervention, indicating a greater difference in effectiveness between the two contexts; in X1, the increase was homogeneous, while in X2 the slight rise in SD suggests individual variability in response to the programme.

5th grade of Primary Education:

· Both schools show similar improvements of around +0.40 points: X1 increases from 2.56 ± 0.87 to 2.97 ± 0.91, and X2 from 2.70 ± 0.89 to 3.10 ± 0.91, with no significant differences observed.

· This pattern suggests that the gap tends to narrow with age, possibly due to greater technological familiarity, autonomy, and capacity to adapt to virtual environments among older students.

A direct comparison between the two interventions reveals a marked difference in overall impact. The first intervention (X1) produced consistent and statistically significant improvements in the lower grades, with positive and relatively uniform effects and low dispersion, whereas the second intervention (X2) yielded more heterogeneous results, with improvements only in the upper grade (5th) and even negative impact in the lower grades, which may point to shortcomings in implementation, preparation, or pedagogical fit in more vulnerable contexts or those less familiar with technology.

Table 4

Summary of data for both schools

Grade	School X1 After (M ± SD)		School X2 After (M ± SD)	Change (%)
3º		3.45 ± .88	2.50 ± .79	-27.5%
4º		3.76 ± .95	2.96 ± .86	-21.3%
5º		2.97 ± .91	3.10 ± .91	+4.4%

Figure 3

Comparison of mean scores. School X1 vs. School X2

Note: Own elaboration

The results show a clear advantage for School X1 in 3rd and 4th grades, whereas in 5th grade School X2 slightly outperforms X1, suggesting that the digital divide has a greater impact in the earlier stages of schooling. The standard deviations (SDs) indicate moderate and comparable dispersion in both schools, which suggests that the observed differences are not driven by outlier scores but by general trends at the group level.

This pattern may be explained by several factors:

· Dependence on family support: Younger students require more guidance when using digital platforms, and in contexts with lower cultural and educational capital this support can be limited or absent, which negatively affects the impact of the intervention.

· Unequal access to devices at home: While in X1 each student may have a dedicated computer or tablet, in X2 a single device may be shared among multiple family members, slowing down the learning pace and diminishing the quality of the immersive VR experience.

Visualisation of progress by school and grade:

Two parallel plots can be used to illustrate the evolution of mean scores obtained by 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-grade students in both schools (X1 and X2), before and after the VR-based educational intervention. Each school would include two lines:

· Dashed line: scores before the intervention.

· Solid line: scores after the intervention.

This representation allows visualising both within-school change and cross-school comparison.

· School X1, a clear improvement is observed in 3rd and 4th grades, whereas in 5th grade the improvement is more moderate.

· School X2, scores remain stable or decrease slightly in 3rd and 4th grades, with a more evident improvement only in 5th grade.

Figure 4

Evolution of mean scores before and after in both schools

Note: Own elaboration

4. Discussion

The study reveals a marked difference in the effectiveness of learning with virtual reality (VR) between two schools with distinct sociocultural profiles. In School X1, students significantly improved their performance, confirming the value of VR for developing practical skills in simulated contexts, whereas School X2 showed no progress and even slight declines, suggesting that a less digitalised environment and limited prior experience constrained the impact despite the availability of technological infrastructure. This result supports the notion of a digital divide in terms of access, use, and appropriation (Gómez et al., 2018; Van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2019) and aligns with González-Benito et al. (2022), who warn that access alone does not guarantee meaningful or critical use, indicating that second- and third-level digital divides continue to affect school performance even when resources are available.

The evidence points to the digital divide translating into a pedagogical divide. As Cabero and Ruiz-Palmero (2017) argue, the integration of educational technologies must be accompanied by a comprehensive strategy that includes teacher training, students’ digital literacy, and curricular adaptation, a need that this study confirms, particularly in the case of School X2, where students with less familiarity with immersive technologies did not benefit from the proposal to the same extent. There is, therefore, a need for critical digital literacy, understood not only as the instrumental handling of devices but also as the capacity to evaluate, select, and use digital information in meaningful ways (García, 2020), a perspective that is key to understanding why the VR intervention had less impact in X2 despite comparable technological resources (Álvarez et al., 2023; Hamilton et al., 2021; González-Medina et al., 2025).

This study not only confirms the educational potential of VR in teaching BLS, but also highlights how its impact is conditioned by structural factors: VR does not create the digital divide; it exposes and amplifies it, making it essential that any technology-based educational innovation plan should include:

· A prior diagnosis of the digital competences of students and teachers.

· Specific training programmes for teachers (Hamilton et al., 2021).

· A didactic design adapted to the sociocultural context (Cabero, 2004).

· Strategies for pedagogical and family support.

In line with González et al. (2024) and López et al. (2024), both studies concur that family socioeconomic factors are decisive for the educational use of technology, with income level directly correlated with children’s access to and use of computers and the internet. Within this framework, the lack of family support in X2, especially in the lower grades, may explain why students do not consolidate learning despite the intervention.

As highlighted by Plaza (2024), the United Nations (2020), and Victoria Maldonado et al. (2024), digital inclusion cannot depend solely on technological provision, but on sustained public policies that reduce inequalities and promote an equitable digital culture from early ages. This analysis invites reflection on the need to territorialise the curriculum beyond its legal framework: although key competences are clearly defined, their acquisition is not equitable, and virtual reality does not create the digital divide; it reveals and amplifies it.

Some limitations of this study must be acknowledged:

The variation in participant numbers between sessions required the use of t tests for independent samples, which reduced statistical power and calls for caution when interpreting p values; the calculation of effect size using Hedges’ g helps to nuance these results and, taken together, supports the conclusion that the VR intervention was particularly effective in the lower grades of the more advantaged school and much more limited in the school located in a vulnerable sociocultural context.

Moreover, the markedly different sociocultural profiles of the two schools constrain both learning opportunities and how students engage with technology: School X1, a state-subsidised private school in a middle- to upper-class environment, prioritises innovation, active methodologies, and early technology use, with strong family support and advanced infrastructure, whereas School X2, a public school with an inclusive mission, serves a more diverse student body with greater economic and digital constraints and less family support, despite having good infrastructure and trained teachers. These structural and cultural differences may have amplified the observed gap in VR outcomes, meaning that the effects identified cannot be attributed solely to the technological resource but must be interpreted within non-equivalent sociocultural contexts, which limits the generalisability of the findings.

5. Conclusions

The findings of this research lead to the conclusion that, in Primary Education, digital literacy must go beyond the basic operation of tools and resources and focus on developing competences that enable students to evaluate, select, and use digital information effectively and reflectively, a perspective that should inform both curriculum design and teacher education so that technology is used meaningfully regardless of sociocultural context. The study has once again highlighted the importance of teacher training and of teachers’ knowledge of their students and their environment for the effective implementation of technological innovations, since teachers identify as decisive not only differences in students’ digital competences but also the linguistic competences required to participate in activities and the contextual variables shaping the simulated situation, which underscores the need for personalised support to help all students make the most of immersive tools such as virtual reality.

Educational actions in favour of equity and social and educational justice must also address the family sphere, as the roots of the digital divide lie largely in the sociocultural context in which children grow up, and this study therefore proposes contributing to the creation of a digital learning ecosystem that transcends classroom walls and extends into the home. The differences in outcomes between the two schools invite reflection on curricular flexibility and contextualisation of learning: the fact that results in the school located in an urban context with favourable family environments were markedly better than in the school in a rural area with contexts of exclusion shows how family differences and students’ prior digital culture directly influence learning, implying that educational innovation initiatives require a prior diagnosis of the sociocultural context and of the student competences associated with the specific innovation in order to design differentiated strategies that respond to these particular needs.

Finally, the study confirms the potential of virtual reality as an effective educational tool, especially from the upper grades of Primary Education onwards, when students develop metacognitive and decision-making skills; however, the effectiveness of this tool largely depends on the existence of an appropriate environment for its implementation, making it essential for educational institutions not only to provide the necessary resources but also to create safe and stimulating spaces where students can experiment and learn actively.

Contributions

Conceptualization, Author1, Author2, and Author3; data curation, Author1 and Author2; formal analysis, Author1, Author2, and Author3; fundraising, Author1; research, Author1, Author2, and Author3; methodology, Author1, Author2, and Author3; project management, Author1, Author2, and Author3; resources, Author3; software, Author2; monitoring, Author1, Author2, and Author3; validation, Author1, Author2, and Author3; visualization, Author1, Author2, and Author3; writing—preparing the original draft, Author1, Author2, and Author3; writing—revising and editing, Author1, Author2, and Author3.

Funding

Fundación Mapfre - https://doi.org/10.13039/501100003350

Ethical Approval

Ethics Committee statement and approval number for studies involving human or animal participants: CE112309.

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